GENETICS

Introduction to Genetics and Variation
Observable Variations in Human Beings
Discontinuous and Continuous Variation

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define genetics, heredity and variation. Explain the importance of studying genetics. Identify examples of variation in organisms.
Define discontinuous and continuous variation. Give examples of each type. Plot frequency distribution graphs for continuous variation.

Q/A on prior knowledge of inheritance. Brainstorming on observable differences in humans. Discussion on the meaning of genetics and heredity.
Analysis of tongue rolling and height data. Plotting frequency-height graphs on chalkboard. Discussion on differences between variation types.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk
Ink pad, plain paper, metre rule, exercise books
Graph paper, rulers, height data from previous lesson, textbook

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 1-2
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 3-4

GENETICS

Causes of Variation
Chromosome Structure

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain genetic and environmental causes of variation. Describe role of meiosis, fertilization and mutations in creating variation.

Exposition on sources of variation. Discussion on independent assortment during meiosis. Examples of environmental effects on phenotypes.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, pencils

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 4-5

GENETICS

Chromosome Behaviour During Mitosis

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Demonstrate chromosome behaviour during mitosis. Identify stages of mitosis. Explain importance of mitosis.

Practical activity using colored threads to model mitosis stages. Creating paper models of mitotic stages. Group discussions.

Colored threads (6cm and 3cm), scissors, manila paper, string for tying knots

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 6-8

GENETICS

Chromosome Behaviour During Meiosis
DNA Structure and Replication

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe chromosome behaviour during meiosis. Explain crossing over and reduction division. Compare mitosis and meiosis.

Continuation of chromosome modeling using threads. Demonstration of reduction division. Discussion on gamete formation.

Colored threads, manila paper, textbook
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 8-9

GENETICS

DNA and Protein Synthesis
Mendel's Experiments and First Law

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain role of DNA in protein synthesis. Describe mRNA formation and function. Understand genetic code concept.
Describe Mendel's experiments with garden peas. State Mendel's first law of inheritance. Explain reasons for Mendel's success.

Exposition on transcription and translation. Discussion on messenger RNA. Examples of genetic codes using chalkboard diagrams.
Q/A on Mendel's work. Detailed discussion of pea plant experiments using chalkboard diagrams. Analysis of F1 and F2 results.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 12-13
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 13-15

GENETICS

Monohybrid Inheritance Concepts

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define monohybrid inheritance, genotype, phenotype. Distinguish between dominant and recessive genes. Explain homozygous and heterozygous conditions.

Exposition on genetic terminology. Practice using genetic symbols on chalkboard. Discussion on gene expression patterns.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 15-17

GENETICS

Genetic Crosses and Punnet Squares

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Draw genetic cross diagrams. Use punnet squares to show genetic crosses. Predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.

Step-by-step construction of genetic crosses on chalkboard. Practice with punnet squares. Student exercises on genetic problems.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, pencils

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 17-18

GENETICS

Genetic Crosses and Punnet Squares

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Draw genetic cross diagrams. Use punnet squares to show genetic crosses. Predict offspring genotypes and phenotypes.

Step-by-step construction of genetic crosses on chalkboard. Practice with punnet squares. Student exercises on genetic problems.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, pencils

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 17-18

GENETICS

Probability in Inheritance
Modeling Random Gamete Fusion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain probability in genetic inheritance. Calculate phenotypic and genotypic ratios. Demonstrate random events using coin tossing.
Demonstrate random fusion of gametes. Use simple materials to model inheritance. Analyze experimental vs expected results.

Mathematical analysis of genetic ratios. Coin tossing experiment to demonstrate probability. Statistical interpretation of results.
Practical activity using different colored beans to represent gametes. Data collection and analysis. Discussion on sample size effects.

Coins, exercise books for recording, calculators (if available), textbook
Different colored beans (or maize grains), small containers, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 18-19
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 19-20

GENETICS

Modeling Random Gamete Fusion

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Demonstrate random fusion of gametes. Use simple materials to model inheritance. Analyze experimental vs expected results.

Practical activity using different colored beans to represent gametes. Data collection and analysis. Discussion on sample size effects.

Different colored beans (or maize grains), small containers, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 19-20

GENETICS

Complete Dominance Problems

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Solve genetic problems involving complete dominance. Analyze inheritance patterns in garden peas. Practice genetic calculations.

Worked examples of genetic problems on chalkboard. Practice sessions with various characteristics. Group problem-solving.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 20-21

GENETICS

Incomplete Dominance

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define incomplete dominance. Analyze inheritance in four o'clock plants. Compare with complete dominance patterns. Draw genetic crosses showing blending.

Exposition on incomplete dominance using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses showing blending inheritance. Practice problems with flower colors.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, colored chalk (if available)

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 22-24

GENETICS

Incomplete Dominance
ABO Blood Group System

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define incomplete dominance. Analyze inheritance in four o'clock plants. Compare with complete dominance patterns. Draw genetic crosses showing blending.
Explain multiple alleles concept. Describe ABO blood group inheritance. Understand co-dominance in blood groups. Solve blood group problems.

Exposition on incomplete dominance using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses showing blending inheritance. Practice problems with flower colors.
Detailed explanation of blood group genetics on chalkboard. Genetic crosses involving blood group inheritance. Practice problems and paternity cases.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, colored chalk (if available)
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 22-24
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 24-25

GENETICS

Rhesus Factor and Unknown Genotypes

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe Rhesus factor genetics. Explain test cross and back cross methods. Use selfing to determine genotypes.

Exposition on Rh factor inheritance using chalkboard. Demonstration of test cross technique. Practice problems on genotype determination.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 25-26

GENETICS

Sex Determination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe sex determination in humans and other animals. Explain XX/XY sex determination systems. Calculate probability of male/female offspring.

Exposition on sex chromosomes using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses for sex determination. Comparison with other animals.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 26-27

GENETICS

Sex Determination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe sex determination in humans and other animals. Explain XX/XY sex determination systems. Calculate probability of male/female offspring.

Exposition on sex chromosomes using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses for sex determination. Comparison with other animals.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 26-27

GENETICS

Gene Linkage
Sex-linked Inheritance - Color Blindness

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define gene linkage and linkage groups. Explain inheritance of linked genes. Understand why some genes are inherited together.
Describe sex-linked inheritance patterns. Explain color blindness inheritance. Construct and analyze pedigree charts.

Exposition on linked genes using simple diagrams. Examples from fruit fly genetics drawn on chalkboard. Discussion on chromosome maps.
Detailed exposition on X-linked inheritance using chalkboard. Genetic crosses for color blindness. Drawing simple pedigree charts.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books, rulers

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 27-28
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 28-30

GENETICS

Sex-linked Inheritance - Haemophilia

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain haemophilia inheritance. Understand carrier females and affected males. Analyze inheritance through generations.

Exposition on haemophilia genetics. Drawing inheritance patterns on chalkboard. Practice with pedigree construction and analysis.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 30-31

GENETICS

Crossing Over and Recombination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain crossing over during meiosis. Understand how crossing over affects linkage. Describe formation of new gene combinations.

Detailed explanation of crossing over using simple diagrams. Examples of recombinant offspring drawn on chalkboard. Discussion on genetic variation.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, colored chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Page 31

GENETICS

Crossing Over and Recombination

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain crossing over during meiosis. Understand how crossing over affects linkage. Describe formation of new gene combinations.

Detailed explanation of crossing over using simple diagrams. Examples of recombinant offspring drawn on chalkboard. Discussion on genetic variation.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, colored chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Page 31

GENETICS

Chromosomal Mutations - Non-disjunction
Chromosomal Mutations - Polyploidy

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define chromosomal mutations. Explain non-disjunction during meiosis. Describe Down's syndrome and other chromosome disorders.
Describe structural chromosome changes. Explain polyploidy in plants. Understand chromosome number variations.

Exposition on non-disjunction using chalkboard diagrams. Drawing normal vs abnormal chromosome sets. Discussion on genetic disorders.
Exposition on chromosome number changes. Examples of polyploidy in agriculture using chalkboard. Discussion on plant breeding applications.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 32-35
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 35-36

GENETICS

Chromosomal Mutations - Polyploidy

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe structural chromosome changes. Explain polyploidy in plants. Understand chromosome number variations.

Exposition on chromosome number changes. Examples of polyploidy in agriculture using chalkboard. Discussion on plant breeding applications.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 35-36

GENETICS

Gene Mutations

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define gene mutations. Describe insertion, deletion, substitution and inversion. Explain effects on protein synthesis using analogies.

Detailed exposition on point mutations using simple examples. Use SMS text analogies for mutations. Discussion on protein changes.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, simple text examples

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 36-38

GENETICS

Genetic Disorders - Albinism

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe albinism inheritance. Explain enzyme deficiency in albinism. Calculate inheritance probabilities. Draw genetic crosses.

Case study of albinism using chalkboard diagrams. Genetic crosses for albinism inheritance. Discussion on carrier parents and affected children.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 38-40

GENETICS

Genetic Disorders - Sickle Cell Anaemia

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe sickle cell anaemia inheritance. Explain hemoglobin differences. Understand sickle cell trait vs disease.

Exposition on sickle cell genetics using diagrams. Comparison of normal and sickle cell hemoglobin. Genetic crosses and probabilities.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 40-42

GENETICS

Environmental Effects on Gene Expression

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain gene-environment interactions. Describe phenotypic plasticity. Understand limitations of genetic determinism.

Discussion on environmental influences using local examples. Plant growth under different conditions. Twin studies and environmental factors.

Textbook, local plant examples, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 42-43

GENETICS

Applications of Genetics

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Identify applications in plant and animal breeding. Explain genetic counselling. Understand blood transfusion genetics. Introduce genetic engineering basics.

Exposition on practical genetics applications. Local examples of plant breeding. Discussion on genetic counselling process and medical applications.

Textbook, local breeding examples, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 43-49

EVOLUTION

Meaning of Evolution and Origin of Life Theories

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define evolution and organic evolution. Distinguish between special creation and chemical evolution theories. Explain the scientific approach to understanding life's origin.

Brainstorming on how life began. Discussion on religious vs scientific explanations. Exposition on chemical evolution theory. Comparison of different viewpoints.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 53-55

EVOLUTION

Meaning of Evolution and Origin of Life Theories
Chemical Evolution and Miller's Experiment

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define evolution and organic evolution. Distinguish between special creation and chemical evolution theories. Explain the scientific approach to understanding life's origin.
Describe Miller's spark discharge experiment. Explain formation of organic compounds from simple molecules. Understand primitive earth conditions.

Brainstorming on how life began. Discussion on religious vs scientific explanations. Exposition on chemical evolution theory. Comparison of different viewpoints.
Detailed exposition on Miller's experimental setup using chalkboard diagrams. Discussion on primitive atmosphere composition. Analysis of experimental results and significance.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk
Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, simple laboratory glassware for demonstration

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 53-55

EVOLUTION

Evidence for Evolution - Fossil Records

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define fossils and explain fossil formation. Describe types of fossils. Analyze fossil evidence for evolution. Understand geological time scale.

Exposition on fossil formation processes. Examination of any available fossil specimens or pictures. Discussion on fossil records of humans and other organisms. Timeline construction on chalkboard.

Textbook, any available fossil specimens, pictures from textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 55-62

EVOLUTION

Geographical Distribution and Comparative Embryology

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain biogeographical evidence for evolution. Describe continental drift effects on species distribution. Compare embryological development in vertebrates.

Discussion on animal and plant distribution patterns. Examination of world map showing species distribution. Drawing embryological stages on chalkboard. Comparison of vertebrate embryos.

Textbook, world map, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 60-63

EVOLUTION

Geographical Distribution and Comparative Embryology

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain biogeographical evidence for evolution. Describe continental drift effects on species distribution. Compare embryological development in vertebrates.

Discussion on animal and plant distribution patterns. Examination of world map showing species distribution. Drawing embryological stages on chalkboard. Comparison of vertebrate embryos.

Textbook, world map, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 60-63

EVOLUTION

Comparative Anatomy - Homologous Structures
Comparative Anatomy - Analogous and Vestigial Structures

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define homologous structures. Examine pentadactyl limb in different vertebrates. Explain divergent evolution. Identify adaptive modifications.
Define analogous and vestigial structures. Compare bird and insect wings. Give examples of vestigial organs. Explain convergent evolution.

Practical examination of bone specimens or pictures. Drawing and labeling pentadactyl limbs of different animals. Discussion on common ancestry evidence. Comparison of limb modifications.
Examination of bird and insect wing specimens. Drawing wing structures on chalkboard. Discussion on vestigial organs in humans and other animals. Examples of convergent evolution.

Textbook, bone specimens (if available), pictures of animal limbs, chalkboard, chalk, exercise books
Textbook, wing specimens (bird feathers, insect specimens), chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 63-67
KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 67-70

EVOLUTION

Comparative Anatomy - Analogous and Vestigial Structures

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Define analogous and vestigial structures. Compare bird and insect wings. Give examples of vestigial organs. Explain convergent evolution.

Examination of bird and insect wing specimens. Drawing wing structures on chalkboard. Discussion on vestigial organs in humans and other animals. Examples of convergent evolution.

Textbook, wing specimens (bird feathers, insect specimens), chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 67-70

EVOLUTION

Cell Biology and Comparative Serology Evidence

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe cellular evidence for evolution. Explain biochemical similarities in organisms. Understand serological tests for evolutionary relationships.

Discussion on universal cellular features. Exposition on ATP, DNA similarities across species. Explanation of blood protein comparisons. Simple demonstration of precipitation reactions.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk, simple solutions for demonstration (if available)

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 69-70

EVOLUTION

Lamarck's Theory vs Darwin's Theory

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics. Describe Darwin's theory of natural selection. Compare and contrast both theories. Understand scientific acceptance criteria.

Exposition on Lamarck's giraffe example using chalkboard drawings. Detailed explanation of Darwin's natural selection theory. Comparison table construction. Discussion on scientific evidence.

Textbook, chalkboard, chalk

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 71-73

EVOLUTION

Natural Selection in Action

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Explain struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. Describe peppered moth example. Model cryptic coloration effects. Understand environmental selection pressures.

Practical activity modeling cryptic coloration using paper cutouts. Discussion on peppered moth case study. Examples of predator-prey relationships. Analysis of selection pressures.

White and black paper, scissors, textbook, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 73-75

EVOLUTION

Modern Examples of Evolution and Resistance

By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
Describe antibiotic and pesticide resistance. Explain sickle cell trait advantage in malaria areas. Understand ongoing evolutionary processes. Apply evolutionary principles to current issues.

Discussion on drug-resistant bacteria and insects. Case study of malaria and sickle cell trait. Examples of rapid evolutionary changes. Q/A session and topic review.

Textbook, local examples of pesticide resistance, chalkboard

KLB Secondary Biology Form 4, Pages 75-77